البطاطس وخطورة التسمم بالسولانين

البطاطس وخطورة التسمم بالسولانين

من منا لم يشاهد في يوم من الأيام عند قيامه بشراء الخضروات
بعض حبات البطاطس التي يظهر على قشرتها اللون الأخضر
دون أن يثير ذلك اهتمامنا أو تساؤلنا عن سر هذا اللون الغريب
في تلك الحبات ، ولربما أرجعه البعض منا في نفسه إلى أنه
مجرد لون بسيط قد يكون موجوداً في البطاطس التي لم تنضج بعد ،
و يمكن إزالته بالسكين أثناء التقشير ، ولا مشكلة منه .
إلا أن حقيقة هذا اللون مغايرة تماماً لهذا الاعتقاد ، وقد تكون مثيرة حقاً ،
وغير متوقعة بالنسبة لك فهذا اللون عبارة عن مادة سامة تدعى السولانين .

ما هو السولانين:


السولانين مادة تقوم بتركيبها نبتة البطاطس بشكل طبيعي
خصوصاً في الأوراق ، والجذوع لمقاومة الفطريات
والحشرات التي قد تتطفل عليها ، وللدفاع عن نفسها
من الحيوانات التي قد تتناولها فالحيوانات لا تتناول
بشكل فطري النباتات التي قد تسبب لها التسمم .

وتختار الأصناف التجارية التي تباع في الأسواق
على أساس محتواها القليل من السولانين ،
حيث يبلغ في البطاطس التجارية أقل من ( 2. 0 ) ملغ / غ ،
إلا أن البطاطس إذا تعرضت للضوء فإنها تبدأ بالاخضرار تدريجياً ،
و يكون محتوى السولانين ساماً عندما يصل تركيزه
إلى (( 1 ملغ / غ )) كما يوجد السولانين بالطبع في حبات البطاطس غير الناضجة أيضاً .

ما هي أعراض التسمم بالسولانين :
تظهر أعراض التسمم الحادة بالسولانين بعد ( 8- 12) ساعة
من تناول الوجبات المحتوية على جرعات سامة من السولانين ،
و يمكن أن تظهر بعد نصف ساعة فقط ، وتكون على شكل
أعراض عصبية ، وهضمية حادة ، وتشمل :
• الغثيان
• الاسهال
• التقيء
• تشنج المعدة

كيف نتجنب التسمم بالسولانين :

يعد تجنب التسمم بالسولانين أمراً بسيطاً للغاية فما عليك
سوى تجنب شراء واستهلاك حبات البطاطس التي تظهر
على قشرتها اللون الأخضر مهما كانت درجة هذا اللون
بسيطة كما أن تقشير البطاطس يخلصنا من ( 30 – 80 )%
من السولانين إذا كان موجوداً ، و يعمل القلي على درجات
حرارة عالية فوق ( 170 ) م على تخريب هذه المادة ،
و إبطال سميتها إلا أن اختيار حبات البطاطس التي لا يظهر
على قشرتها أي لون أخضر بالطبع يبقى أهم وأول خطوة للوقاية من هذا السم .

ما هو السولانين وهل يعد ساما؟

هو عبارة عن جلايكو ألكالويد مر الطعم وسام، C₄₅H₇₃NO₁₅،يشتق من براعم البطاطا والطماطمولديه خصائص ناركوتية والتي استغلت سابقا لعلاج الصرع.يصنع من الألكالويد سولانيدين ومن الكاربوهيدرات(الجلايكو) وسلسلة جانبية.أنظر إلى التركيب في الأسفل



سولانين ألفا 

تركيب السولانين:الأزرق الهيكل الخلفي للسولانيدين(تركيب الألكالويد)،الأحمر:بقايا الكاربوهيدرات.

يتشكل طبيعيا في أي جزء في النبات بما فيها الأوراق والفاكهة والدرنات.يعد ساما حتى عند الكميات القليلة منه.للسولانين خصائص مقاومة للفطريات وللحشرات ،ويعد واحدا من عوامل الدفاع الموجودة في النباتات.تصنع البطاطا طبيعيا السولانين والكاكونين وهو عبارة عن جلايكوألكالويد ،كالية دفاع ضد الحشرات والامراض والحيوانات المفترسة.أوراق البطاطا وجذوعها غنية بشكل طبيعي بالجلايكوألكالويدات.

يتم اختبار أصناف البطاطا التجارية لمحتواها من السولانين واغلبها يحتوي على كمية اقل من0.2 ملغ/غرام.من ناحية أخرى فإن البطاطا التي تتعرض للضوء والتي تبدا بالاخضرار يمكن أن تحتوي على تراكيز حوالي 1ملغرام/غرام او أكثر.في هذه الظروف يمكن لحبة بطاطا غير مقشرة أن تتسبب بجرعة خطرة.

سمية السولانين

تظهر سمية السولانين بشكل رئيسي باعتلالات هضمية وعصبية.تتضمن الأعراض: الغثيان والاسهال والاستفراغ وتشنج المعدة وحرقة الحنجرة والصداع والدوخة.الهلوسة وفقدان الاحساس والشلل والحمى واليرقان وتوسع البؤبؤ وانخفاض الحرارة جميعا اعراض مسجلة في الحالات الحادة من المرض.

أما الكميات الكبيرة من السولانين فيمكن أن تسبب الموت.تقترح احدى الدراسات أن الجرعات من 2 إلى 5 ملغرام لكل كيلوغرام من وزن الجسم يمكن ان يسبب أعراض سمية:أما الجرعات بين 3إلى 6 ملغرام لكل كيلوغرام من وزن الجسم يمكن أن تكون قاتلة.

تحدث الأعراض عادة من 8 إلى 12 ساعة بعد الالتهام،لكن يمكنها أن تحدث بسرعة تصل إلى 30 دقيقة بعد تناول أطعمة محتوية على تراكيز عالية من السولانين.

يحدث أغلب السولانين عند القشور أو مباشرة تحت قشور البطاطا.وجد بان البطاطا المقشرة تحتوي على 30-80% من السولانين أقل من تلك الغير مقشرة.ويجب ان يتم تقشير البطاطا الخضراء دائما إذا أردنا استخدامها بشكل كامل.يتواجد السولانين والكاكونين في البراعم أيضا.

القلي المتوغل عند درجة حرارة 170 سيلوسي فعال في التقليل من مستويات الجلاليكو ألكالويد،الغلي غير فعال أما المايكرويف فيعد فعالا نوعا ما.

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العائلة الباذنجانية

Solanaceae

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"Nightshade" redirects here. For other uses, see Nightshade (disambiguation).

Solanaceae
A flowering Brugmansia suaveolens from the US Botanic Garden
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Solanales
Family:	Solanaceae Juss.
Subfamilies
Cestroideae Goetzeoideae Nicotianoideae Petunioideae Schizanthoideae Schwenckioideae Solanoideae[1]

Solanaceae is a family of flowering plants that includes a number of important agricultural crops. Many species are toxic plants. The name of the family comes from the Latin Solanum "the nightshade plant", but the further etymology of that word is unclear. Most likely, the name comes from the perceived resemblance that some of the flowers bear to the sun and its rays, and in fact a species of Solanum (Solanum nigrum) is known as the sunberry. Alternatively, it has been suggested the name originates from the Latin verb solari, meaning "to soothe". This presumably refers to soothing pharmacological properties of some of the psychoactive species of the family.
The family is also informally known as the nightshade - or potato family. The family includes Datura, Mandragora (mandrake), Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade), Lycium barbarum (Wolfberry), Physalis philadelphica (Tomatillo) , Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry flower), Capsicum (chili pepper, bell pepper), Solanum (potato, tomato, eggplant), Nicotiana (tobacco), and Petunia. With the exception of tobacco (Nicotianoideae) and petunia (Petunioideae), most of the economically important genera are contained in the sub-family Solanoideae.
Many members of the Solanaceae family are used by humans, and are important sources of food, spice and medicine. However, Solanaceae species are often rich in alkaloids whose toxicity to humans and animals ranges from mildly irritating to fatal in small quantities.

Contents  [hide]  1 Description 2 Genetics 3 Alkaloids 4 Selected genera 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit] Description

Plants are herbs, shrubs, trees, or sometimes vines. The flowers are usually actinomorphic. Flower shapes are typically rotate (radiately spreading in one plane with a short tube) or tubular (elongated cylindrical tube), with 4-5 petals that are usually fused. Leaves are alternate. The fruit has axile placentation and is a berry as in the case of the tomato or wolfberry, or a dehiscent capsule as in Datura. The seeds are usually round and flat, about 2–4 millimetres (0.079–0.16 in) in diameter. The stamens are epipetalous and are typically present in multiples of 4 or 5, most commonly four or eight. The ovary is superior.^[2]

[edit] Genetics

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Most Solanaceae members have 12 chromosomes, a number that has increased due to polyploidy. Wild potatoes, of which there are approximately 200, are predominantly diploid (2 * 12 = 24 chromosomes) but triploid (3 * 12 =36 chromosomes), tetraploid (4 * 12 = 48 chromosomes), pentaploid (5 * 12 = 60) and even hexaploid (6 * 12 = 72 chromosome) species or populations exist. The cultivated species Solanum tuberosum has 4 * 12 = 48 chromosomes. Some capsicum species have 2 * 12 = 24 chromosomes, while others have 26 chromosomes.

[edit] Alkaloids

Solanaceae is known for having a diverse range of alkaloids. As far as humans are concerned, these alkaloids can be desirable, toxic, or both.
One of the most important groups of these compounds is called the tropane alkaloids. The term "tropane" comes from a genus in which they are found, Atropa (the belladonna genus). Atropa is named after the Greek Fate, Atropos, who cut the thread of life. This nomenclature reflects its toxicity and lethality.
Tropane alkaloids are also found in the Datura, Mandragora, and Brugmansia genera, as well as many others in the Solanaceae family.^[3] Chemically, the molecules of these compounds have a characteristic bicyclic structure and include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine. Pharmacologically, they are the most powerful known anticholinergics in existence, meaning they inhibit the neurological signals transmitted by the endogenous neurotransmitter, acetylcholine. Symptoms of overdose may include dry mouth, dilated pupils, ataxia, urinary retention, hallucinations, convulsions, coma, and death.
Despite the extreme toxicity of the tropanes, they are useful drugs when administered in extremely small dosages. They can reverse cholinergic poisoning, which can be caused by overexposure to pesticides and chemical warfare agents such as sarin and VX. More commonly, they can halt many types of allergic reactions. Atropine, a commonly used ophthalmological agent, dilates the pupils and thus facilitates examination of the interior of the eye. Scopolamine is used as an antiemetic against motion sickness or for people receiving chemotherapy. Atropine has a stimulant effect on the central nervous system and heart, whereas scopolamine has a sedative effect.
An infamous alkaloid derived from Solanaceae is nicotine. Like the tropanes, its pharmacology acts on cholinergic neurons, but with the opposite effect (it is an agonist as opposed to an antagonist). It has a higher specificity for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors than other ACh proteins. Nicotine occurs naturally in the Nicotiana or Tobacco genus.
Another class of toxic substances found in this family are the glycoalkaloids, for example solanine which has occasionally been responsible for poisonings in people who ate berries from species such as Solanum nigrum or Solanum dulcamara, or green potatoes.^[4][5]
The chemical in chili peppers responsible for the burning sensation is capsaicin. Capsaicin affects only mammals, not birds. Pepper seeds can always survive the digestive tract of birds; their fruit becomes brightly colored once its seeds are mature enough to germinate thereby attracting the attention of birds who then distribute the seeds. Capsaicin extract is used to make pepper spray, a useful deterrent against aggressive mammals.

[edit] Selected genera

Acnistus Alona Anisodus Anthocercis Atropa – Deadly nightshade Atropanthe Browallia Brugmansia – Angel's trumpet Brunfelsia Calibrachoa Capsicum – Chili peppers Cestrum Chamaesaracha Combera Crenidium

Cuatresia Cyphanthera Cyphomandra Datura – Devil's Trumpet Duboisia Exodeconus Fabiana Hyoscyamus – Henbane Iochroma Jaltomata Juanulloa Latua Leucophysalis Lycianthes Lycium L. – Boxthorn

Lycopersicon (obsolete grouping) Mandragora – Mandrake Mellissia – St. Elena boxwood Methysticodendron Nicandra Nicotiana – Tobacco Nierembergia – Cupflower Nolana Oryctes Petunia Physalis – Cape gooseberry, Ground-cherry, Tomatillo Physochlaina Plowmania Przewalskia ـــــــــــــــــ

Salpichroa Salpiglossis Saracha Schizanthus Schwenckia Scopolia Sessea Solandra Solanum – Tomato, Potato, Eggplant, Kangaroo Apple Streptosolen Trechonaetes Trianaea Vestia Witha

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The Solanaceae Family

The Solanaceae family provides some of the world's most popular vegetables. Potatoes and tomatoes are among the top in the list of most produced vegetables in the U.S.¹
Given their current popularity, it's hard to believe tomatoes were once thought to be poisonous.² Tomatoes don't keep well if refrigerated, so gardeners await the first ripe tomato with anticipation. This vine ripened tomato is totally unlike the tasteless irradiated version of the tomato found in stores during the winter. Once you've tried a sun-warmed, vine-ripened tomato, you'll be among the group waiting for the first one next year!

Latin name		Common name
Genus	species
Capsicum	annuum	sweet pepper, chili pepper
Capsicum	chinensis	habanero, hot paper lantern, and Caribbean red hot peppers
Physalis	ixocarpa	tomatillo
Physalis	pruinosa	husk cherry
Solanum	lycopersicum	tomato
Solanum	melanocerasum	garden huckleberry
Solanum	melongena	eggplant
Solanum	tuberosum	potato

Culture:
All members of this family need full sun. They all prosper in well-drained soil with lots of organic matter.
All Solanaceae family members except for potatoes should be started as seedlings. Peppers and eggplants can be started 8-10 weeks before the last frost, depending on variety. Hot peppers, especially the chinensis species, take a while to germinate and grow into a nice size for transplanting so these can be started up to 10 weeks before the last frost. Tomatillos and tomatoes grow fairly quickly, so these can be started 6 weeks before the last frost. Potatoes are planted in seed potato form (very small potatoes or potato pieces) in early or mid spring.
With the exception of potatoes, Solanaceae family members need warm weather. Transplant seedlings after all danger of frost has passed and the weather has settled into warmer days. Mulch when the soil is warm to ensure even soil moisture and keep down weeds.
For taller peppers, tall tomatillo varieties, and tomatoes set up a support system when the plants are put in. Cages and posts work well. Whatever method you choose, make sure it will be large and sturdy enough to support the plants when they are mature. If in doubt, err on the side of sturdier construction.
Potato plants should be "hilled up" as they grow. This is most often done with soil but can also be accomplished with old hay. If using the latter, be generous. Potatoes exposed to sun will develop a green tinge which is not edible.
Eliminate moisture stress on all of these vegetables by being consistent with watering practices. Mulching will aid in this and is imperative with potatoes.
Pests and Diseases:
Pests and diseases seem to like this family as much as people do. Potential pests include aphids, cabbage loopers, Colorado potato beetles, corn earworms, cucumber beetles, European corn borers, leafhoppers, leafminers, potato tuber worms, tomato hornworms, pepper maggots, nematodes, and flea beetles.³ The major pests are described below.
Colorado potato beetles are the worst potato pest. The adults are the size of lady bugs and are yellow with black stripes. The larvae are red grubs with two rows of black dots and a black head. Yellow eggs are laid on the underside of leaves. Controls include covering the bed with a row cover as soon as its planted, hand picking of insects and eggs, and/or spraying the larvae with Bt. While potatoes are their favorite vegetable, they will also attack other members of the family.
Flea beetles are the bane of eggplants. These beetles are small and recognized because they jump when disturbed. They will leave a shot-hole pattern in the leaves weaken the plants considerably. A floating row cover installed at planting time is an effective control. Wood ashes are reported to repel them.⁴
Tomato hormworms are large (up to 4" long), green with white stripes and have a "horn" on the back end. They feed on the leaves of tomatoes and other members of the family. They are easily removed by hand or killed by spraying Bt. (Bt works for other worms and caterpillars as well.) Hornworms have natural predators, such as the brachonid wasp. Worms with rows of white eggs should be left to provide a new generation of brachonid wasps.
Spotted and striped cucumber beetles eat plant tissue but their greatest threat is their ability to carry bacterial diseases. The larvae eat roots. Crop rotation will alleviate problems with the larvae. Row covers can protect plants while they are young.
Potential diseases include black leg, early blight, internal blackspot, lat blight, mosaic, rhizoctonia, ring rot, scab, verticillium wilt, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, blossom drop, blossom end rot, bacterial canker, and fruit rot.⁵
Crop rotations of 4 years for members of the family are strongly recommended as a key to disease prevention. Consistent watering is also an effective disease deterrent for blossom drop and blossom end rot. In conjunction with adequate watering, blossom end rot can be prevented by ensuring adequate calcium. Test your bed prior to planting and add lime if necessary to achieve a pH of 6.5-7.0. Whenever possible, plant disease resistant varieties. To prevent phytopthora and bacterial spot, avoid watering the leaves of plants.
Harvest and Curing:
With the exception of potatoes, pick fruit promptly when ripe to keep production at optimum levels. Discard any fruit that is blemished or has fallen off the plants. When harvesting eggplant, use clippers to cut the stems. Do not pull the fruit off the plant, as part of the plant will probably be removed with it.
Potato harvest can begin 8 weeks after planting with "new" potatoes. The mature crop is harvested 100-115 days after planting. When the foliage dies down, the entire bed can be harvested by gently lifting the plants with a garden fork. If the potatoes were hilled up with straw, the plants can be pulled up and most of the potatoes will come up with it. Cure by allowing the skins to dry. Store in a cool, dark place.
Seed saving:
The flowers of this family are self pollinating but attractive to many insects. Different varieties within a species can easily cross so isolation, blossom baging with polyspun fabric, or caging is recommended.⁶
Potatoes are most often propagated from seed potatoes or pieces of large potatoes. The seeds for other members of the family are harvested from ripe fruit. The fruit is cut into pieces and put in a bucket with water. Good seeds will sink and fruit pieces and non-viable seeds will float to the top. All floating matter is discarded and more water is added until all that is left is the good seeds at the bottom. Strain the seeds and allow to dry, stirring regularly to prevent rot during the drying process.⁷
Tomato seeds are fermented to kill seed-borne diseases and to discard the gelatinous sack that covers the seeds. This is done by mashing the ripe fruit, placing it in a bucket, and adding a cup of water per cup of mashed fruit. Allow it to ferment for three days, stirring twice a day. This will smell as bad as it sounds! Find a location for the bucket accordingly, keeping in mind that some animals like things that smell foul. When mold completely covers the surface of the bucket or when bubbles are seen rising to the surface, double the mixture size by adding water. Stir well so the viable seeds will sink and pour off the rest of the mix, adding water as necessary. Put seeds through a strainer and dry.⁸
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SOLANACEAE - The Potato Family This is a large Family with around 2000-3000 species in 90 different genera, found in most temperate and tropical regions, with a large number coming from Australia and Central and South America. It is a family mainly of herbs, with a few shrubs and trees, and contains many of our most well-known food plants, including Potatoes, Tomatoes, Aubergines and Peppers. It also contains many popular garden ornamental plants, including Petunias, Browallia and Salpiglossis. There are several poisonous species, including Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna), Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and Thorn Apple (Datura stramonium), and the family also contains the important economic plant, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), which contains the highly toxic alkaloid nicotine.

Characteristics of this Plant Family:
Leaves, Stem & Roots ~ Members of this Family are often climbers or at least scrambling plants, often with hairy stems and leaves. The leaves are variable, and may be entire or dissected, without stipules, and are usually alternate. The calyx has five parts, which may be joined, and it often remains and enlarges around the fruit, as in Cape Gooseberry (Physalis) or the Shoo-Fly Plant (Nicandra).
Flowers ~ The flowers have five petals and are generally regular in shape. They may be round and flat or star-shaped, but are often bell shaped or tubular. They usually occur in groups in the leaf axils, although they may be solitary. There are five stamens attached to the corolla tube.
Seeds ~ The ovary is superior (inside the flower), and the fruit is either a berry or a capsule, often containing many light brown disc-shaped seeds.
Members of this Family usually have:
Regular flowers with five petals
Alternate leaves
Five stamens attached to the corolla tube
Superior ovary containing many yellowish disc-shaped seeds


*** Many parts of many members of this Plant Family are POISONOUS ***

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  الباذنجانينSolanum

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For the Solanum Virus, see The Zombie Survival Guide.

"Horsenettle" and variants redirect here. If used for a particular species, this name usually applies to the Carolina Horsenettle (S. carolinense).

Solanum
Brazilian Nightshade (Solanum seaforthianum)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Solanales
Family:	Solanaceae
Subfamily:	Solanoideae
Tribe:	Solaneae
Genus:	Solanum L.[1]
Subgenera
Bassovia Leptostemonum Lyciosolanum Solanum (but see text)
Synonyms
Androcera Nutt. Aquartia Jacq. Artorhiza Raf. Bassovia Aubl. Battata Hill Bosleria A.Nelson Ceranthera Raf. Cliocarpus Miers Cyphomandra Mart. ex Sendtn. Diamonon Raf. Dulcamara Moench Lycopersicon Mill. Melongena Mill. Normania Lowe Nycterium Vent. Ovaria Fabr. Parmentiera Raf. (non DC.: preoccupied) Petagnia Raf. Pheliandra Werderm. Pseudocapsicum Medik. Scubulus Raf. Solanastrum Fabr. Solanocharis Bitter Solanopsis Bitter Triguera Cav.

Solanum, the nightshades, horsenettles and relatives, are a large and diverse genus of annual and perennial plants. They grow as forbs, vines, subshrubs, shrubs, and small trees, and often have attractive fruit and flowers. Many formerly independent genera like Lycopersicon (the tomatoes) or Cyphomandra are included in Solanum as subgenera or sections today. Thus, the genus nowadays contains roughly 1,500-2,000 species. The species usually most commonly called nightshade in North America and England is Solanum dulcamara, also called bittersweet and woody nightshade. Its foliage and egg-shaped red berries are poisonous, the active principle being solanine, which can cause convulsions and death if taken in large doses. The black nightshade (S. nigrum) is also generally considered poisonous, but its fully ripened fruit and foliage are cooked and eaten in some areas.
The generic name was first used by Pliny the Elder (23-79) for a plant also known as strychnos, most likely S. nigrum. Its derivation is uncertain, possibly stemming from the Latin word sol, meaning "sun," referring to its status as a plant of the sun. Another possibility is that the root was solare, meaning "to soothe," or solamen, meaning "a comfort," which would refer to the soothing effects of the plant upon ingestion.^[2]
Most parts of the plants, especially the green parts and unripe fruit, are poisonous to humans (although not necessarily to other animals), but many species in the genus bear some edible parts, such as fruits, leaves, or tubers. Several species are cultivated, including three globally important food crops:

• Tomato, S. lycopersicum
• Potato, S. tuberosum
• Eggplant, S. melongena

Other species are significant food crops regionally, such as Ethiopian Eggplant and gilo (S. aethiopicum), naranjilla or lulo (S. quitoense), Turkey Berry (S. torvum), pepino (S. muricatum), or the "bush tomatoes" (several Australian species).
While most medical relevance of Solanum is due to poisonings which are not uncommon and may be fatal, several species are locally used in folk medicine, particularly by native peoples who have long employed them. Giant Devil's-fig (S. chrysotrichum) has been shown to be an effective treatment for seborrhoeic dermatitis in a scientific study.^[3]
Solanum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths) - see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Solanum.

Contents  [hide]  1 Systematics 1.1 Subgenus Bassovia 1.2 Subgenus Leptostemonum 1.3 Subgenus Lyciosolanum 1.4 Subgenus Solanum sensu stricto 1.5 Other notable species 1.6 Formerly placed here 2 References

[] Systematics

See also: List of Solanum species

The genus was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.^[4] Its subdivision has always been problematic, but slowly some sort of consensus is being achieved.
The following list is a provisional lineup of the genus' traditional subdivisions, together with some notable species.^[4] Many of the subgenera and sections might not be valid; they are used here provisionally as the phylogeny of this genus is not fully resolved yet and many species have not been reevaluated.
Cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data suggests that the present subdivisions and rankings are largely invalid. Far more subgenera would seem to warrant recognition, with Leptostemonum being the only one that can at present be clearly subdivided into sections. Notably, it includes as a major lineage several members of the traditional sections Cyphomandropsis and the old genus Cyphomandra.^[5]

[edit] Subgenus Bassovia

Section Allophylla

• Solanum granuloso-leprosum

Section Cyphomandropsis

• Solanum glaucophyllum Desf. – Waxy-leaved Nightshade

Section Pachyphylla

• Solanum betaceum Cav. – Tamarillo
• Solanum exiguum
• Solanum roseum

[edit] Subgenus Leptostemonum

Solanum palinacanthum

Five-minute Plant (S. atropurpureum) fruit

Shrubby Nightshade (S. robustum) flowers

Giant Potatocreeper (S. wendlandii) flowers

Porcupine Tomato (S. pyracanthum) fruit

Section Acanthophora Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. – Indian Nightshade Solanum atropurpureum Schrank – Five-minute Plant Solanum capsicoides – Cockroach Berry, polohauaiʻi (Polynesian) Solanum mammosum – Nipplefruit, Titty Fruit, Cow's Udder, "apple of Sodom" Solanum palinacanthum Dunal Solanum viarum Dunal – Tropical Soda Apple Section Androceras: 12 spp.[1] Series Androceras Series Violaceiflorum Series Pacificum Section Anisantherum Section Campanulata Section Crinitum Section Croatianum Section Erythrotrichum Solanum robustum H.L.Wendl. – Shrubby Nightshade Section Graciliflorum[verification needed] Section Herposolanum Solanum wendlandii Hook.f. – Giant Potatocreeper Section Irenosolanum Solanum incompletum Dunal – Pōpolo kū mai (Hawaiʻi) Solanum nelsonii Dunal – Nelson's Horsenettle, ʻĀkia (Hawaiʻi) Solanum sandwicense Hook. & Arn. – Hawaiian Horsenettle, Pōpoloʻaiakeakua (Oʻahu, Kauaʻi) Section Ischyracanthum Section Lasiocarpa Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal Solanum quitoense – lulo (Colombia), naranjilla (Ecuador) Solanum sessiliflorum – Cocona Section Melongena Solanum aculeastrum – Soda Apple, Sodaapple Nightshade, Goat Apple, Poison Apple, "bitter-apple" Solanum campechiense – Redberry Nightshade Solanum carolinense – Carolina Horsenettle, Radical Weed, Sand Brier, Devil's Tomato, "bull nettle", "tread-softly", "apple of Sodom", "wild tomato" (southeastern United States) Solanum citrullifolium A.Braun – Watermelon Nightshade (southern United States) Solanum dimidiatum Raf. – Torrey's Nightshade Solanum elaeagnifolium – Silver-leaved Nightshade, Prairie Berry, Silverleaf Nettle, White Horsenettle, Silver Nightshade, "bull-nettle", "trompillo" (Spanish); Silver-leaf bitter-apple, satansbos (South Africa) Solanum heterodoxum Dunal – Melon-leaved Nightshade Solanum incanum L. Solanum linnaeanum – Devil's Apple, "apple of Sodom" Solanum macrocarpon L. Solanum marginatum L.f. – White-margined Nightshade Solanum melongena – Eggplant, Aubergine (including S. ovigerum) Solanum rostratum Dunal – Buffalo Bur, Texas Thistle Solanum sisymbriifolium Lam. – Sticky Nightshade, fire-and-ice Solanum virginianum L.

Section Micracantha Solanum jamaicense Mill. – Jamaican Nightshade Solanum lanceifolium Jacq. – Lance-leaved Nightshade Solanum tampicense Dunal – Wetland Nightshade Section Monodolichopus Section Nycterium Section Oliganthes Solanum aethiopicum – Ethiopian Eggplant, Nakati, Mock Tomato, Ethiopian Nightshade; including S. gilo (Scarlet Eggplant, Gilo or jiló) Solanum centrale – Australian Desert Raisin, Bush Raisin, Bush Sultana, "bush tomato", akatjurra (Alyawarre), kampurarpa (Pitjantjatjara), merne akatyerre (Arrernte), kutjera Solanum cleistogamum – "bush tomato", merne mwanyerne (Arrernte) Solanum ellipticum – Potato Bush, "bush tomato" Solanum pyracanthon Lam. – Porcupine Tomato, Devil's Thorn Solanum quadriloculatum F.Muell. – "bush tomato", "wild tomato" (Australia) Section Persicariae Solanum bahamense L. – Bahama Nightshade, Canker Berry, berengena de playa Solanum ensifolium Dunal – Erubia Section Polytrichum Section Pugiunculifera Section Somalanum Section Torva Solanum asteropilodes Solanum chrysotrichum Schltdl. – Giant Devil's-fig Solanum lanceolatum – Orangeberry Nightshade Solanum paniculatum – Jurubeba Solanum torvum – Turkey Berry, Devil's Fig, Prickly Nightshade, Shoo-shoo Bush, Wild Eggplant, Pea Eggplant

[edit] Subgenus Lyciosolanum

• Solanum guineense L.

[edit] Subgenus Solanum sensu stricto

Solanum erianthum

Jasmine Nightshade (S. laxum) flowers

Currant Tomato (S. pimpinellifolium) fruit

Andean black potatoes (S. tuberosum)

Turkey Berry (S. torvum) flowers

Yellow Nightshade (S. villosum) fruit

Section Afrosolanum Section Anarrhichomenum Solanum baretiae[6] Section Archaesolanum Solanum aviculare – Poroporo (New Zealand), Kangaroo Apple (Australia) Section Basarthrum Solanum muricatum – Pepino dulce, pepino melon, melon pear, "pepino", "tree melon" Solanum tergosericeum[7] Section Benderianum Section Brevantherum Solanum bullatum Solanum erianthum D.Don – Potato Tree, "Mullein Nightshade" Solanum mauritianum – Woolly Nightshade, Ear-leaved Nightshade, Flannel Weed, Bugweed, Tobacco Weed, Kerosene Plant, "wild tobacco" (Australia) Section Dulcamara Solanum crispum – Chilean Potato Vine, Chilean Nightshade, Chilean Potato Tree Solanum dulcamara – Bittersweet Solanum imbaburense Solanum laxum Spreng. – Jasmine Nightshade Solanum leiophyllum Solanum seaforthianum Andrews – Brazilian Nightshade Solanum triquetrum Cav. – Texas Nightshade Solanum wallacei – Wallace's Nightshade, Catalina Nightshade, Clokey's Nightshade, "wild tomato" (including S. clokeyi) Solanum xanti – Purple Nightshade, San Diego Nightshade Section Herpystichum Section Holophylla Solanum diphyllum L. – Twin-leaved nightshade Solanum pseudocapsicum – Jerusalem Cherry, Madeira Winter Cherry, "winter cherry" (including S. capsicastrum) Solanum pseudoquina (including S. inaequale Vell.) Section Juglandifolia Section Lemurisolanum Section Lycopersicoides Solanum lycopersicoides Dunal – Peruvian Wolfpeach Section Lycopersicon Solanum arcanum Peralta – "wild tomato" Solanum cheesmaniae (L.Riley) Fosberg Solanum galapagense S.C.Darwin & Peralta Solanum huaylasense Peralta Solanum lycopersicum – Tomato Solanum peruvianum L. – Peruvian Nightshade, "wild tomato" Solanum pimpinellifolium – Currant Tomato

Section Macronesiotes Section Normania Section Petota Solanum albornozii Solanum bulbocastanum – Ornamental Nightshade Solanum bukasovii Juz. ex Rybin Solanum burtonii Solanum cardiophyllum – Heart-leaved Nightshade Solanum chilliasense Solanum commersonii Dunal – Commerson's Nightshade Solanum demissum Lindl. – Dwarf Wild Potato Solanum jamesii – Wild Potato Solanum minutifoliolum Solanum paucijugum Solanum phureja Juz. & Bukasov Solanum pinnatisectum Dunal – Tansy-leaved Nightshade Solanum regularifolium Solanum stoloniferum Schltdl. – Tigna Potato, Fendler's Horsenettle Solanum stenotomum (including S. goniocalyx) Solanum ternatum (including S. ternifolium) Solanum tuberosum – Potato Section Pteroidea Section Quadrangulare Section Regmandra Section Solanum Solanum adscendens Sendtner – Sonoita Nightshade (Americas) Solanum americanum Mill. – American Nightshade, American Black Nightshade, Glossy Nightshade (Americas, Hawaiʻi) Solanum chenopodioides Lam. – Goosefoot Nightshade, Slender Nightshade (including S. gracilius) Solanum douglasii Dunal – Green-spotted Nightshade Solanum interius Rydb. Solanum nigrescens M.Martens & Galeotti – Divine Nightshade Solanum nigrum L. – European Black Nightshade, "black nightshade" Solanum pseudogracile Heiser – Glowing Nightshade Solanum ptychanthum – West Indian Nightshade, Eastern Black Nightshade Solanum retroflexum – Wonderberry, Sunberry Solanum sarrachoides – Hairy Nightshade Solanum scabrum Mill. – Garden Huckleberry Solanum triflorum Nutt. – Cut-leaved Nightshade Solanum villosum Mill. – Yellow Nightshad

] Other notable species

Forked Nightshade (S. furcatum)

Bluewitch Nightshade (S. umbelliferum) flowers

Solanum amygdalifolium Steud. Solanum bellum Solanum cajanumense Solanum chimborazense Solanum chrysasteroides Solanum cinnamomeum Solanum conocarpum Rich. ex Dunal – Marron Bacoba Solanum cremastanthemum Solanum davisense Whalen – Davis' Horsenettle Solanum densepilosulum Solanum donianum Walp. – Mullein Nightshade Solanum dolichorhachis Solanum fallax Solanum ferox L. – Hairy-fruited Eggplant, Thai Hairy-fruited Eggplant Solanum fortunense Solanum furcatum – Forked Nightshade Solanum glabratum Dunal Solanum haleakalaense H.St.John Solanum hindsianum Benth. – Hinds' Nightshade Solanum hypermegethes Solanum hypocalycosarcum Solanum interandinum Solanum latiflorum Solanum leucodendron Solanum lumholtzianum Bartlett – Sonoran Nightshade

Solanum luteoalbum (including S. semicoalitum) Solanum lycocarpum – Wolf Apple, fruta-de-lobo, lobeira (Brazil) Solanum melissarum Bohs Solanum nudum Dunal – Forest Nightshade Solanum ovum-fringillae Solanum paralum Solanum parishii A.Heller – Parish's Nightshade Solanum physalifolium Rusby Solanum pinetorum Solanum polygamum Vahl – Cakalaka Berry Solanum pyrifolium Lam. Solanum riedlei Dunal – Riedle's Nightshade Solanum rudepannum Dunal Solanum rugosum Dunal – tabacon aspero Solanum sibundoyense Solanum sodiroi (including S. carchiense) Solanum sycocarpum Solanum tenuipes Bartlett – Fancy Nightshade Solanum tobagense Solanum trilobatum L. Solanum umbelliferum – Bluewitch Nightshade Solanum verrogeneum Berengena Solanum violaceum Ortega Solanum viride Spreng. – Green Nightshade Solanum woodburyi Howard – Woodbury's Nightshade

[edit] Formerly placed here

Lycianthes rantonnetii and its congeners were often placed in Solanum

Some plants of yet other genera also were placed in Solanum in former times:

• Chamaesaracha coronopus (as S. coronopus)
• Lycianthes biflora (as S. multifidum Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don)
• Lycianthes denticulata (as S. gouakai var. angustifolium and var. latifolium)
• Lycianthes lycioides (as S. lycioides var. angustifolium)
• Lycianthes mociniana (as S. uniflorum Dunal in Poir. and S. uniflorum Sessé & Moc.)
• Lycianthes rantonnetii (as S. rantonnetii, S. urbanum var. ovatifolium and var. typicum)
• Undetermined species of Lycianthes have been referred to under names such as S. chrysophyllum, S. ciliatum Blume ex Miq., S. corniculatum Hiern, S. lanuginosum, S. loxense, S. mucronatum, S. retrofractum var. acuminatum, S. violaceum Blume, S. violifolium f. typicum, S. virgatum notst ß albiflorum, S. uniflorum Lag. or S. uniflorum var. berterianum

1. ^ "Solanum L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. 2009-09-01. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
2. ^ Quattrocchi, Umberto (2000). CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names. 4 R-Z. Taylor and Francis US. p. 2058. ISBN 978-0-8493-2678-3.
3. ^ Herrera-Arellano, A.; Jiménez-Ferrer, E.; Vega-Pimentel, A.M.; Martínez-Rivera, Mde.L.; Hernández-Hernández, M.; Zamilpa, A. & Tortoriello, J. (2004). "Clinical and mycological evaluation of therapeutic effectiveness of Solanum chrysotrichum standardized extract on patients with Pityriasis capitis (dandruff). A double blind and randomized clinical trial controlled with ketoconazole". Planta Medica 70 (6): 483–488. doi:10.1055/s-2004-827145. PMID 15241887.
4. ^ ^a b "Solanum Phylogeny". Solanaceae Source. Natural History Museum. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
5. ^ Agricultural Research Service (13 April 2006). "Genus: Solanum L.". Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2009-11-01.
6. ^ Tepe, Eric J.; Ridley, Glynis; Bohs, Lynn. "A new species of Solanum named for Jeanne Baret, an overlooked contributor to the history of botany". PhytoKeys. Retrieved March 10, 2012.
7. ^ Ochoa, C. M. (2006). Solanum tergosericeum (Solanaceae sect. Basarthrum): A new species from Peru.

Taxon: Solanaceae

Location: Missouri Botanical Garden| Botany Plant Growth Facilities

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Solanaceae

Classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida Order Type: Eudicots-Asterids I Order: Solanales Family: Solanaceae Family Common Name: Potato Family Genera: Browallia, Brugmansia, Capsicum, Datura, Nicotiana, Nierembergia, Petunia, Solanum  Defining Features: Often have branched hairs or prickles. Internal phloem is around pith. This family covers 7 subfamilies. Defining Morphology: Floral Features: Flowers are often bisexual and usually actinomorphic. Inflorescences are determinate in an axillary cyme or reduced to a solitary flower. Calyx is persistent, partly fused and even enlarged in the fruit. Stamens alternate with lobes of corolla and anthers connivent. Ovaries are superior with axile placentation. Fruit and Seed Features: Dicotyledon. Fruit is indehiscent berry or drupe, less common as a capsule. Seeds have oily endosperm, usually proteinaceous with linear straight to curved embryo. Vegetative Features: Habit as herbs, shrubs, trees or lianas. Leaves have entire or variously dissected margins. Leaves are alternate, simple or pinnately compound and spirally arranged. Stipules are absent. Distribution: Cosmopolitan with centers in Australia, along with Central and South America. Economic Use: As source of tobacco, food plants and cultivated garden and indoor ornamentals. Some species are highly poisonous due to the presence of steroid alkaloids. Alkaloids from some species are being used in medicine. Number of Genera Globally: 147 Number of Species Globally: 2,930

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Solanaceae

Solanales. The Solanaceae are herbs, shrubs, or trees comprising about 85 genera and 2,800 species that are frequently lianous or creeping. The leaves are alternate, usually simple, and lack stipules. The flowers are bisexual and actinomorphic or only slightly zygomorphic. The perianth and androecium whorls generally are isomerous and usually are 5- or sometimes 4- or 6-merous. The calyx is synsepalous, ranging from tubular to deeply cleft. The corolla is sympetalous and ranges from forms with a short tube and rather long, reflexed lobes to forms with a long tube and short lobes. The stamens are distinct, alternating with the lobes of the corolla, and adnate to the corolla tube or perigynous zone. The gynoecium consists of a single compound pistil of 2 carpels, a single style, and a superior ovary with 2 or rarely more locules by false partitioning, each with nearly always numerous axile ovules. A nectary disk is generally present around the base of the ovary. The fruit is a berry or septicidal capsule.
Each "thumbnail" image below is linked to a larger photograph.

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	Brugmansia x candida, angel trumpet. This commonly planted ornamental tree has attractive trumpet-shaped flowers but is quite poisonous.
	Brunfelsia latifolia, yesterday-today-and-tomorrow, kiss-me-quick. Shrub from tropical America, with fragrant flowers that change from violet to white over a three day period.
	Capsicum annuum, chili pepper.
	Cyphomandra betacea, tamarillo, tree tomato.
	Lycium sandwicense, 'ohelo kai. Note the 4-lobed corolla, 4 stamens, and peltate stigma in flowers of this native Hawaiian coastal shrub.
	Lycopersicon sp., tomato.
	Lycianthes rantonnetii, blue potato bush, Paraguay nightshade, Placentia CA, June, 2003.
	Nicotiana glauca, wild tobacco, tree tobacco.
	Nicotiana tobaccum, tobacco. This species has a corolla with a long, narrow tube.
	Nothocestrum latifolium, 'aiea. This native Hawaiian tree has     4-merous flowers. Note the conspicuous corolla and calyx tubes.
	Petunia hybrid.
	Physalis alkekengi,
	Physalis philadelphica, tomatillo, note similarity of flower to Convolvulaceae
	Physalis peruviana, poha. In some members of the potato family the flowers are rotate with very short lobes, very similar to the floral form in the related family, Convolvulaceae.
	Solandra maxima, 'cup of gold,' a species with very large flowers measuring 5-6 inches or more across.
	Solanum americanum, glossy nightshade, popolo.
	Solanum dulcamara, deadly nightshade. Members of the family with deeply cleft corolla and spreading to reflexed lobes such as this one often have anthers that dehisce poricidally.
	Solanum sandwicense, nightshade, popolo'aiakeakua, popolo, endemic Hawaiian species.
	Solanum seaforthianum, Kaneohe, HI, December, 2004.
	Solanum sp.
	Streptosolen jamesii. Note calyx and corolla typical for the family. Note also the alternate leaves that characterizes the family.

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Capsicum annuum
Taxon: Solanaceae

Location: Missouri Botanical Garden

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The Families of Flowering Plants

L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz

Solanaceae Juss.

Including Cestrineae (Cestraceae) Schlechtd., Salpiglossidaceae Hutch., Sclerophylacaceae MiersExcluding Duckeodendraceae, Goetzeaceae
Habit and leaf form. Herbs, shrubs, trees, and lianas (often prickly); non-laticiferous and without coloured juice; resinous, or not resinous. ‘Normal’ plants (usually), or ‘normal’ plants to switch-plants (occasionally). Plants autotrophic. Annual, or biennial, or perennial; with a basal aggregation of leaves, or with neither basal nor terminal aggregations of leaves, or with terminal aggregations of leaves (e.g. in Anthocercis). Self supporting, or climbing; the climbers stem twiners, or scrambling. Helophytic to xerophytic. Leaves alternate, or alternate to opposite (usually alternate below, but often becoming opposite towards the inflorescence); usually spiral (at least below); ‘herbaceous’, or leathery, or modified into spines (rarely very small and ericoid, e.g. in Fabiana imbricata); petiolate (mostly), or subsessile, or sessile; non-sheathing; gland-dotted (rarely, e.g. Anthocercis), or not gland-dotted; aromatic, or foetid (assignment of (e.g.) Anthocercis as pleasant/unpleasant being a matter of opinion), or without marked odour (mostly); simple, or compound; epulvinate; when compound, ternate, or pinnate. Lamina dissected, or entire; when simple/dissected, pinnatifid, or spinose; pinnately veined; cross-venulate. Leaves exstipulate; without a persistent basal meristem. Domatia occurring in the family (from 4 genera); manifested as hair tufts.
General anatomy. Plants with ‘crystal sand’ (commonly), or without ‘crystal sand’.
Leaf anatomy. Stomata mainly confined to one surface, or on both surfaces; anomocytic, or anisocytic, or diacytic. Hairs usually present; multicellular. Multicellular hairs branched.
Lamina dorsiventral (usually), or isobilateral; without secretory cavities. The mesophyll containing mucilage cells (rarely), or not containing mucilage cells. Minor leaf veins without phloem transfer cells (5 genera).
Stem anatomy. Cork cambium present; initially deep-seated, or superficial. Nodes unilacunar (with 2 or 3 traces). Primary vascular tissue bicollateral. Internal phloem present. Secondary thickening developing from a conventional cambial ring (usually), or anomalous; from a single cambial ring. ‘Included’ phloem present (occasionally, e.g. Atropa belladonna rhizomes), or absent. Xylem with tracheids, or without tracheids; with fibre tracheids, or without fibre tracheids; with libriform fibres, or without libriform fibres; with vessels. Vessel end-walls simple. Wood parenchyma apotracheal, or paratracheal. Sieve-tube plastids S-type.
Reproductive type, pollination. Plants hermaphrodite (mostly), or monoecious, or andromonoecious, or dioecious (e.g. sometimes in Solanum and Symonanthus). Pollination entomophilous.
Inflorescence, floral, fruit and seed morphology. Flowers solitary, or aggregated in ‘inflorescences’. The ultimate inflorescence unit apparently cymose. Inflorescences terminal, or axillary, or leaf-opposed (occasionally). Flowers small to medium-sized; fragrant (e.g. Nicotiana), or malodorous (e.g. Anthocercis, if so considered), or odourless (mostly); regular (usually, more or less), or somewhat irregular to very irregular. The floral irregularity (when noticeable) involving the perianth, or involving the androecium, or involving the perianth and involving the androecium. Flowers mostly (4–)5 merous; cyclic; tetracyclic. Free hypanthium absent. Hypogynous disk usually present; intrastaminal.
Perianth with distinct calyx and corolla; 10 (nearly always), or 8, or 11–14; 2 whorled; isomerous, or anisomerous. Calyx (4–)5(–7); 1 whorled; gamosepalous. Calyx lobes markedly shorter than the tube to markedly longer than the tube. Calyx regular (usually), or unequal but not bilabiate; persistent; accrescent, or non-accrescent. Corolla (4–)5(–7); 1 whorled; gamopetalous. Corolla lobes markedly shorter than the tube to markedly longer than the tube. Corolla contorted and plicate (usually), or imbricate, or valvate, or contorted; rotate, or campanulate, or funnel-shaped, or tubular; regular (usually, more or less), or bilabiate (rarely), or unequal but not bilabiate (sometimes).
Androecium 5 (usually), or 3–4 (rarely), or 6–7 (rarely). Androecial members adnate (epipetalous, on the tube); all equal (often), or markedly unequal; free of one another; 1 whorled. Androecium exclusively of fertile stamens (usually), or including staminodes (Salpiglossideae). Staminodes when present, 1 (Salpiglossis), or 3 (Schizanthus); in the same series as the fertile stamens; representing when present, the posterior median member (Salpiglossis), or the posterior median member and the posterior-lateral pair (Schizanthus). Fertile stamens representing the posterior median member, the posterior-lateral pair, and the anterior-lateral pair (mostly), or the posterior-lateral pair and the anterior-lateral pair (Salpiglossis), or the anterior-lateral pair (Schizanthus). Stamens 5 (in all but Salpiglossideae), or 2, or 4; inserted near the base of the corolla tube, or midway down the corolla tube, or in the throat of the corolla tube; didynamous (e.g. Anthocercis), or not didynamous, not tetradynamous (mostly); reduced in number relative to the adjacent perianth (rarely), or isomerous with the perianth; oppositisepalous; alternating with the corolla members. Filaments appendiculate (e.g., inconsistently lobed in Anthocercis), or not appendiculate. Anthers connivent (often touching in a ring at their tops), or separate from one another; dorsifixed, or basifixed; dehiscing via pores to dehiscing via short slits (terminally), or dehiscing via longitudinal slits; extrorse (e.g. Anthocercis), or introrse (usually, if dehiscence not terminal); tetrasporangiate. Endothecium developing fibrous thickenings, or not developing fibrous thickenings (when the dehiscence is porose). Microsporogenesis simultaneous. The initial microspore tetrads tetrahedral, or isobilateral, or decussate. Anther wall initially with one middle layer, or initially with more than one middle layer (1 or 2); of the ‘basic’ type (rarely), or of the ‘dicot’ type. Tapetum glandular. Pollen shed in aggregates (rarely), or shed as single grains; in Salpiglossis, in tetrads. Pollen grains aperturate (usually), or nonaperturate; (2–)3–5(–6) aperturate; colpate, or colporate (or colporoidate), or rugate; 2-celled (recorded in 15 genera).
Gynoecium 2 carpelled. Carpels reduced in number relative to the perianth. The pistil 2 celled (usually), or 3–5 celled (Nicandreae and Datureae). Gynoecium syncarpous; synstylovarious to eu-syncarpous; superior. Ovary 2 locular (but sometimes complicated by secondary divisions). Locules secondarily divided by ‘false septa’ (Nicandreae and Datureae), or without ‘false septa’. Gynoecium oblique (the posterior carpel to the right, as expressed in conventional floral diagams); stylate. Styles 1; without an indusium; attenuate from the ovary; apical. Stigmas 1–2; if regarded as single, 2 lobed; wet type, or dry type; papillate, or non-papillate; Group II type, or Group III type, or Group IV type. Placentation axile (the placentae usually more or less swollen). Ovules 1–50 per locule (i.e. to ‘many’); non-arillate; anatropous, or hemianatropous; unitegmic; tenuinucellate. Endothelium differentiated. Embryo-sac development Polygonum-type, or Allium-type. Polar nuclei fusing prior to fertilization. Antipodal cells formed; 3; not proliferating; ephemeral (usually), or persistent (e.g. Atropa). Synergids pear-shaped, or hooked (sometimes with filiform apparatus). Endosperm formation cellular, or nuclear, or helobial. Endosperm haustoria usually present; antipodal. Embryogeny solanad (usually), or onagrad (rarely).
Fruit fleshy, or non-fleshy; dehiscent, or indehiscent; a capsule, or a berry, or a drupe. Capsules septicidal (commonly), or loculicidal, or valvular, or circumscissile (Hyoscyamus). Seeds endospermic (usually). Endosperm oily (usually), or not oily (rarely starchy). Seeds not conspicuously hairy. Seeds with starch (rarely), or without starch. Cotyledons 2; semi-cylindric. Embryo achlorophyllous (13/21); straight, or straight to curved, or curved (curved through more than a semicircle to annular in Nicandreae, Solaneae and Datureae, but straight to only slightly curved in Cestreae and Salpiglossideae).
Seedling. Germination phanerocotylar.
Physiology, biochemistry. Cyanogenic, or not cyanogenic. Alkaloids present (mostly), or absent. Iridoids not detected. Arthroquinones detected (Fabiana); polyacetate derived. Proanthocyanidins absent. Flavonols present, or absent; kaempferol and quercetin (mostly). Ellagic acid absent (25 species, 14 genera). Arbutin absent. Ursolic acid present. Saponins/sapogenins present, or absent. Aluminium accumulation demonstrated (rarely). Sugars transported as sucrose (in Datura, Solanum). Inulin recorded (Solanum, Gibbs 1974). C₃. C₃ physiology recorded directly in Datura, Lycium, Lycopersicon, Nicotiana, Petunia, Physalis, Solanum. Anatomy non-C₄ type (Cestrum, Datura, Lycium, Nicandra, Physalis, Solanum, Withania).
Peculiar feature. Non-mangrove species.
Geography, cytology. Temperate to tropical. Absent only from cold regions, but with greatest diversity in Central and South America. X = 7–12(+).
Taxonomy. Subclass Dicotyledonae; Tenuinucelli. Dahlgren’s Superorder Solaniflorae; Solanales. Cronquist’s Subclass Asteridae; Solanales. APG 3 core angiosperms; core eudicot; Superorder Asteranae; lamiid; Order Solanales.
Species 2000 (or more). Genera about 95; Acnistus, Anisodus, Anthocercis, Anthotroche, Archiphysalis, Althenaea, Atropa, Atropanthe, Benthamiella, Bouchetia, Brachistus, Browallia, Brugmansia, Brunfelsia, Calibrachoa, Capsicum, Cestrum, Chamaesaracha, Combera, Crenidium, Cuatresia, Cyphanthera, Cyphomandra, Datura, Deprea, Discopodium, Duboisia, Dunalia, Dyssochroma, Ectozma, Exodeconus, Fabiana, Grabowskia, Grammosolen, Hawkesiophyton, Heteranthia, Hunzikeria, Hyoscyamus, Iochroma, Jaborosa, Jaltomata, Juanulloa, Latua, Leptoglossis, Leucophysalis, Lycianthes, Lycium, Lycopersicon, Mandragora, Margaranthus, Markea, Melananthus, Mellissia, Merinthopodium, Metternichia, Nectouxia, Nicandra, Nicotiana, Nierembergia, Nothocestrum, Oryctes, Pantacantha, Parabouchetia, Pauia, Petunia, Phrodus, Physalis, Physochlaina, Plowmania, Protoschwenckia, Przewalskia, Quincula, Rahowardiana, Reyesia, Salpichroa, Salpiglossis, Saracha, Schizanthus, Schultesianthus, Schwenckia, Sclerophylax , Scopolia, Sessea, Sesseopsis, Solandra, Solanum, Streptosolen, Symonanthus, Trianaea, Triguera, Tubocapsicum, Vassobia, Vestia, Withania, Witheringia.
Family reviewed by D’Arcy in Hawkes, Lester and Skelding (1979).
Economic uses, etc. Products include potato and eggplant (Solanum spp.), and tomato (Lycopersicon). Other edible fruits from Physalis (cape gooseberry, strawberry tomato, jamberberry, sugar cherry, chinese lantern etc., according to the species and variety), Cymphomandra (tamarillo), Capsicum (sweet and chilli peppers), etc. Most produce poisonous alkaloids, and some are commercially important in this connection (Nicotiana, Hyoscyamus, Datura). Many cultivated ornamentals, e.g. Petunia, Lycium, Solanum, Cestrum, Solandra.
Illustrations. • Technical details: Atropa, Mandragora, Solanum. • Technical details: Cestrum. • Technical details: Datura. • Technical details: Discopodium. • Technical details: Hyoscyamus. • Technical details: Jaborosa. • Technical details: Lycium. • Technical details: Nicotiana. • Anthocercis viscosa: habit (photo). • Anthocercis viscosa: flower (photo). • Anthocercis littorea (photo). • Anthocercis littorea (close-up photo). • Anthocercis littorea: Bot. Reg. 212, 1817. • Atropa belladonna (B. Ent.). • Atropa belladonna: Eng. Bot. 934 (1866). • Atropa belladonna (J. E. Sowerby, 1861). • Browallia americana: Bot. Mag. 34, 1788. • Browallia grandiflora: Bot. Reg. 1384, 1830. • Cestrum purpureum: as Habrothamnus purpureus, Bot. Reg. 1844, 43. • Datura (Brugmansia) sanguinea: as Brugmansia bicolor, Bot. Reg. 1739, 1835. • Datura stramonium (J. E. Sowerby, 1861). • Fabiana imbricata: Bot. Reg. 1839, 59. • Grabowskia boerhaaviaefolia: Bot. Reg. 1985, 1837. • Hyoscyamus niger (B. Ent.). • Hyocyamus niger (J. E. Sowerby, 1861). • Lycium barbarum: Eng. Bot. 933 (1866). • Solanum dulcamara (B. Ent.). • Solanum dulcamara (J. E. Sowerby, 1861). • Solanum nigrum (B. Ent.). • Solanum nigrum (J. E. Sowerby, 1861). • Solanum uncinellum Lindl.: Bot. Reg. xxvi, 15 (1840).
Quotations
And shrieks, like mandrakes’, torn out of the earth,
That living mortals, hearing them, go mad
(‘Romeo and Juliet’, iv.,3)
Atropa, too, that, as the beldams say,
Shows her black fruit to tempt and to betray
(Charlotte Smith, quoted by Ann Pratt, ‘Wild Flowers’ (1857))
The pipe, with solemn interposing puff,
Makes half a sentence at a time enough
(William Cowper, ‘Tobacco’)
When potatoes, leaves, or haulms are green,
To livestock must they ne’er be gi’en
(ancient anon, re. solanine poisoning.)

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This description is offered for casual browsing only. We strongly advise against extracting comparative information from it. This is much more easily achieved using the interactive key, which allows access to the character list, illustrations, full and partial descriptions, diagnostic descriptions, differences and similarities between taxa, lists of taxa exhibiting specified attributes, summaries of attributes within groups of taxa, geographical distribution, genera included in each family, classifications (Dahlgren; Dahlgren, Clifford, and Yeo; Cronquist; APG), and notes on the APG classification.
Cite this publication as: ‘Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. 1992 onwards. The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 4th March 2011. http://delta-intkey.com’.



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